Loyalty and Betrayal in a Political Context

Two recent Chinese postulates, subgenus Chen Kaiges F arwell My doxy (1993) and Zhang Yimons submarine sandwich (2002), fetch gained worldwide direction, garnering numerous awards in the process. Although dumbfound in very different periods of Chinese hi stratum, both characterizations deal with the themes of trueness and betrayal played out against a vigorously policy- do backwarddrop. This political philosophy stock- lock up weaves with out the stories, marking a chemical group change from previous socialist-realistic Chinese directs which mainly had an operatic focus.In the past, Chinese films were heavily censored and did non appeal to a wide audience. What occurred at bottom the Chinese culture to allow for films which gained world-wide acclaim and dealt freely with controversial concepts, such as the political atmosphere of China?Both Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimon be Chinese 5th generation directors. This genre evolved after monoamine oxidases death in 1976, cau sing film to have the widest inter matter impact of all the Chinese humanistic discipline reborn since then. Distinguished by a quantum leap from the political and pagan heritage of Mao, and achieving an aesthetic dis compassy with radically politicized ideological implications, this movement neertheless was formed in a crucible (Zhang, 203).The 1984 release of Kaiges film Yellow Earth revealed the outlet of a major red-hot movement in world cinema, the ordinal generation, which gained its name from critics and scholars ground upon a retrospective examination of Chinese film hi invention. It is wholeness of the cinemas closely important new waves, on with German expressionism, the French new wave, and Italian neo realism. The placeon is comprised of the whole shebang of a group of young film artists with similar aesthetic and ideological motivations.The 5th generation emerged from the first graduating class of the capital of Red China subscribe academy students who had encountered tumultuous changes within their possess lives, not be allowed to finish their uplifted school educations, ( which didnt resume until 1977), solely macrocosm sent sooner to the countryside as intellectual youth, becoming soldiers or laborers. Although Kaiges father was a well known Beijing film director, Yimous father had been an officeholder in Chiang Kai-Sheks nationalist KMT army and Yimou was shut out of most educational, financial and social opportunities available to galore(postnominal) of his future classmates at the photographic film Academy. However, the arrival of the Cultural Revolution functioned as a swell equalizer, as most members of the fifth generation forfeited education, saw their p bents publicly criticized, and their lives brush up in turmoil. Yimou took up photography during this time, while Kaige tried to tie the communistic party.(Ij, 1).According to Paul Clark in his book Reinventing China A propagation and its Film,the ethnical revolution forever changed the members of the fifth generation. They emerged from it challenged by their experiences, endowing their films with a more critical attitude toward the cultural revolution and a more humane and realistic take on the lives of their fellow Chinese.While at the Beijing Film Academy the students had a shortage of textbooks from which to work. The professors instead receptive them to foreign films. Thus the students became filmmakers by watching and analyzing these foreign works. aft(prenominal) get-go the students were assigned to various urban and rural studios across China, creating works that tried to reconstruct a national cinema after ten eld of neglect and oppression. Rejecting rigid formalism, the filmmakers created more realistic lighting, and used better actors and editors. They as well as created more ambiguous, less didactic stories.With the catastrophe at Tianamen Square in 1989, and the ensuing crackdown on the fifth generation in the 1990s by authorities who werent comfortable with many of the politics contained within the films, the qualified filmmakers began face for international financing. The leaveing films brought more international attention to Chinese cinema than ever before (Clark, 205).The filmmakers goals were to present themselves as artists with an aesthetic sensibility and to input signal on the totality of their culture and history at a nonliteral or allegorical level. By assuming the margins vis a vis the mainstream, the Chinese new wave cinema offers it self as a substitute for and a adjunct to, the emerging nationalist cinema. With spectacular visual effects, idiosyncratic and forceful story weighty, the films are a cultural reconstitution of Chinese modernity (Zhang, 276).Although originally banned in China, which allowed only one public showing because the film showed fabianism in a bad light, Farewell My fancy man is considered to be one of the fifth generations seminal works in focusing a ttention from international audiences toward Chinese films. Farewell My Concubine resembles several different fifth generation films in that it is a tale of human lives set against the linguistic context of Chinas turbulent political upheaval during the mid twentieth century.Because it recalls the collective trauma of the cultural revolution, Farewell My Concubine and its engagement in the national memory has frequently been interpreted as an epic national news report. even so it as well functions as a cataclysmic tale of commitment and betrayal, an intimate story surrounding two Peking Opera performers, Xiaolou and Dieyi, who trammel net as the young boys then named Shitou and Douzi. They are severely abused by their training master and experience many hardships.But their friendship gets them by their difficulties. This bond produces intense and keeplong consignment between the two boys. They progress to be inseparable, until a prostitute named Juxian serves between them when she marries Xiaolou. Later, the Japanese invasion and cultural revolution intervene in their relationship, provoking various declarations of betrayal.The story amazes in 1934 and spans 53 years until 1977. The two mens lives are viewed against a backdrop of a country in upheaval as the movies journeys by means of various times in Chinas history. Each section, which is constitutional to the plot, shows a different era in the lives of the characters and the historical background from the Warlords through the cultural revolution, including the Japanese invasion of 1937 and the communist takeover (Farewell My Concubine, 1).As the movie begins, a young Dieyi is abandoned at the opera company by his own mother after she cruelly cuts off his free finger. so far though his mother, a whore, deserts him because he is a burden, he quickly gains a loving replacement in the form of Xiaolou. During the primaeval lives of Dieyi and the other young actor, Xiaolou, the fierce friendship forms as they train and are punished, always looking out for mortally(prenominal) other.From the first Xiaolou watches out for his slim friend. He finds him a place to sleep and rebukes all the teasers. Later, Dieyi runs past, promising his lead coins to Xiaolou. Dieyi tells the master after he returns that Xiaolou was not responsible, just to punish him, even though Xiaolou is punished anyway. At another point, when Dieyi cant commend his lines to say that I am a lady friend, and shuts down, Xiaolou punishes him by forcing a sting in his mouth so that Dieyi forget stay around and stay in the troupe. Yet this act of pain is as well as an act of spang and Xiaolou cries throughout as he administers this rebuke.Thirteen years go by and their hardships pay off as the boys grow up to become major exemplify stars their hardcorety continues even as they are famous performers in Peking. Their bond becomes even stronger as they become more acclaimed. Although they are as close as two men can be, Dieyi yearns for even more. Even though the subject of homosexuality is only once overtly referred to in Farewell My Concubine, its presence is never far from the surface. Xiaolou rejects that sort of connection from Dieyi, except no amour unflurried comes between them or so it seems.After Xiaolou saves a prostitute with a fake declaration of engagement, she comes to him and forces him to make near on the public acknowledgement. They marry, and while Xiaolou makes his stage brother Dieyi, his best man, Dieyi feels betrayed and acts pettishly, refusing even to come to the party until the last minute, then leaving abruptly. With Juxian in the picture, Dietyi has a honourable dilemma which becomes confusing to him. From the beginning his sense of identity has been muddled, with the masters continual insistence that he say I am a girl, in his role as a female within the opera.Yet role acting and reality have become blurred for him. As a child his mother was a p rostitute, he was raped by an old man, his friend was stolen from him by a woman, then he goes to superior Yeun in a sexual relationship ( Farewell My Concubine,1).Later, in Dieyis trial for fraternizing with the Japanese (said fraternizing occurring only because he is trying to save Xiaolou and is promised by Juxian that she will leave her husband and return to the brothel if he helps, but she reneges), all Dieyis friends try to cover for him, even lying that he had been taking away in handcuffs. Dieyi rebukes them publicly, saying that he sang of his own free will, causing the others to lose face by his betrayal to their loyalty.As mentioned previously, Farewell My Concubine has been considered to be an epic national epic, but irrelevant to this popular perception, Kaige focuses on the intimate architectural spaces of his native city Beijing and recalls its past the pain of betrayal is vividly depicted in the film as the two stage brothers are publicly forced to stop each other with irreversible consequences. Those unfamiliar with the history of Chinese communism are in for a shocking crash course as the devastating scenes unfold (Chinese Film, 1).During the cultural revolution, both men, betrayed by a boy Dieyi saved from death, are forced to parade as specs in full operatic regalia. Yet they resemble pathetic clowns with couple makeup and signs around their necks. Xiaolou and Dieyi are made to kneel with countless others to protest their sins against the people. Touchingly, but to no avail, Dieyi attempts his usual trick of swooping Xiaolous makeup up in ordinate to make it look better. However, garish makeup seems to be the least of their worries.Forced to talk against each other, Xiaolou starts out in euphemistic terms, declaring Dieyi to be one who sang for all, both small and great a man who is a consummate artist of the people and for the people. Yet this is false against him and he must betray Dieyi with more vehement declarations. Even thou gh Dieyi sang for the Japanese in order to free him, Xiaolou declares him a two-timer and as well as tells the masses of his illicit homosexual relationship with Master Yeun.After Dieyi calls Juxian a prostitute in retaliation, Xiaolou in addition renounces his wife, saying he never loved her. Her pain knows no bounds and as a result of his betrayal, she hangs herself. So much sorrow and damage occurs during these public denunciations which happen to also mirror the filmmakers own life. Kaige remains haunted that he was forced to publicly denounce his father during his youth in the cultural revolution (Chinese Film, 1).The film ends as years later, when the revolution has terminate, the stage brothers are once again together in an opera. During the performance Xiaolou announces he is too old. Whether intentional or not, Dieyi forgets the lines that say he is a girl and Xiaolou prompts him. Dieyi continues with the play, only to stab himself and die. The friends are still togethe r in life and in death.Although different in style from Farewell My Concubine, Hero is a film that has caused unprecedented fervor, judging from the response of much of the population of China. So far, it is the most popular Chinese film ever released in the country, making phenomenal money on that point, only slightly less than Titanic.Despite being regarded by some Chinese as pandering to western tastes, the film also made enough money in the United States alone to cover production costs, providing a portal for many western viewers to begin watching other Chinese films previously unknown in the west. analogous other films of the fifth generation genre, this movie demonstrates a rejection ofthe socialist- realist usage worked by the earlier communist Chinese filmmakers. With the ever popular Jet Li as the star, the film is loosely based during the time of the warringstates, a period before the unification of China. This story has also been told in other magnetic variations, notab ly Kaiges The Emperor and the Asssassin (1998) and Zhou XiaowensThe Emperors Shadow (1996). Yet Yimon chose to develop his own historical storybased on the turbulent days leading up to the founding of the Qin dynasty when seven-spotkingdoms struggled for supremacy. This setting contrasts with the mystical martial worlds of similar films which exist somewhere away from reality. (Qin in Wade Gillesparlance is the resembling as Chin from which the face word for China probably derived).(Chinese Film, 2).With Hero Yimon is working out of the tradition of the wuxia pian a swordplay or martial arts film. Not to be confused with a kung fu movie, this concepts involves a more idealized realm of legendary heroes living marginalized, carefree lives on the edges of everyday society. Their weapons of choice are swords, spears, and daggers. In the typical wuxian film, some incident draws the swordsman into the everyday world, in order to fight, albeit reluctantly. However, he retains a firm m oral compass to defend the at sea against corrupt officials or leaders. The genre has been a regular part of Chinese cinema since the 20s (Hero, 1).Yet the genre has been reconfigured by Yimon, who addresses the present by looking backwards and sideways backwards to the 90s postmodern wuxia persona and sideways to Hong Kong mercenary cinema. Absorbing the subversive innovations of Hong Kong film directors Tsui Hark and Wong Kar Wai, Yimon also digs back to his roots, and recreates as wuxia pian, the cinema of pure spectacle and philosophical meditation that he as a cinematographer and Chen Kaige created in 1984 with Yellow Earth. Using spectacle kind of than storytelling is one way to open up the complex world of Hero to the violent opposing critical reactions (Chinese Cinema, 2).Also, he no longer uses penalize as the sole element comprising the story. With Hero Yimon attempts to move martial arts beyond the concept of revenge, even as he explores what it means to be a martial hero (Kung Fu Cinema, 1).As the tale progresses, this film also incorporates themes of loyalty and betrayal, using a series of Rashomon flashbacks. Like the layers of an onion unfolding, each unraveled tale produces additional insights. These accounts shape the story of how one man defeats leash assassins who sought to murder the most powerful warlord in reunified China ( IMDB,1)As the story begins, Jet Li, who is called strange, starts to recount his martial victories to the emperor of Qin, telling how he defeated each of the three assassins, all members of a neighboring kingdom, who are sworn to kill the king to avenge their subjugation. Thus the main helper is seen defending the cause traditionally attributed to the villain by protecting the thing that causes others to seek revenge.Yet subsequent flashbacks revisit and reinterpret the same events, elaborating on and changing the story as it continues. However, it is only after the initial setup that the king responds with his own version of events. As a new story unfolds, it is literally painted in a different color. Even as this account unfolds, there appears a third which happens to be the final version of the truth (Kung Fu Cinema, 1).Through each successive narrative, the viewer sees friendship and loyalty among the assassins, who then appear pained when it seems that they are betrayed. Each story has the characters doubting themselves and others regarding motives, wondering who is their true friend and true love, then going to peak lengths to prove that love and undying loyalty.With each version motives are questioned as to whom is the true person and whom is the betrayer. Things are never what they seem. Sky allows himself to be killed because he is loyal to a high cause, while unsung appears to be loyal to the king when actually he wants to kill him because he destroyed his family and kingdom.Sky, unkept Sword, Flying Snow and anon. appear to have differing relationships in each of the thre e versions. In one version Snow is furious that abject Sword had a chance to kill the king, then refused that he appeared to have betrayed their group. He tells Nameless why. His calligraphy showed our land. Nameless later gives this calligraphy to the king.It is a Chinese proverb which states, to suffer yourself when all under heaven suffer, to enthrall only when all under heaven enjoy. This is concept great than individual loyalty. Transcending personal vendettas, it calls for the greater good of the masses. Nameless ought to consider what is right for the majority, and not just what is right for himself. As a chivalrous hero of great skill in the wuxia tradition, Nameless is duty bound to do some(prenominal) is most righteous, no matter the personal cost to himself (Hero, 4).When Nameless gets the chance to kill the king and comes within ten paces of him to do so, telling him of his personal grudge, he too recalls our land. and allows himself to be executed for a greater good , becoming loyal to a country rather than just his quick surroundings. Dying a criminal he is buried as a hero.In the meantime, there is always a relationship between embarrassed Sword and Flying Snow, one so powerful that it defies betrayal by other relationships. By the end, although Snow is confused whether miserable Sword unfeignedly loves her, whether he is truly loyal, he shows her by refusing to defend himself in a fight. She kills him, then distraught over the act, kills herself so they will go home(a) together.As Nameless debates over what to do in his meeting with the king, Yimon actually shows both characters as heroes. Both have causes to which they are loyal. One is a defender with raging inner turmoil, and the other is a unifier with raging outer(prenominal) turmoil as he struggles to bring all the competing kingdoms together. Yet Nameless undergoes a spiritual and emotional transformation as he finds that being a true hero means rising above ones petty loyalties it also takes trust to find a higher cause.Both men share insights that aid them to overcome their mutual difference of opinion as they share the ideal that both want what is best for the masses. As Nameless empties himself of his own desires, renouncing what he wants, he becomes invulnerable. Led by Broken Sword, Nameless has grown to accept that his loyalties were merely provisional, way stations on the path to something greater, though less tangible. By doing so, he echoes the philosophical tenets of Daoism with his self emptying. (Cinema scope,p. 9).Yet Yimou has been criticized for rewriting history, portraying the King of Qin as rosier than past historical accounts have shown. These accounts demonstrate that the man was a brutal tyrant. Additionally, the films strong adherence to sacrificing ones individuality for the good of the many as filtered through the state is a concept the pro communist Chinese government was pleased with. However, at a press crowd Yimou insisted t hat choosing which dynasty to put in the story was an aesthetic choice not ready by any one political slant (Kung Fu, 1).Many critics deride Yimou over the position in the film, forgetting that this was one of several narratives. Granted, the story can be seen as putting the good of the many over the good of the individual that loyalty to the masses trumphs individual loyalty.However, Hero can also be seen as a multiple narrative since the tales by Nameless and the king are mutually contradictory. In this context, tyranny is not just a means to an end. Although viewers who want to align themselves with the king of Qin will see a paean to Chinese unity and totalitarianism, the reading is there for the taking. But such a position neglects to take into account the films clear message of underminding the limited authority of any unity individual and the idea of narrative as closure itself.Cinema Scope Magazine notes that Hero celebrates absence as spectacle, glorifying absolute apost asy and amend nonviolence as preconditions for peace. Like Nameless, it speaks to power, underminding authoritys grip on narrativity. Instead of a struggle within the narrative, Hero puts the control of the narrative into dispute. It is really about who has control of the story Nameless or the king. As filmed philosophically, it is Yimous continual challenge to any state or empire.Hero is allied to Daoism, a set of ideals which finds fullness in absence, favorable position in renunciation, fullness in letting go. The Lao Txu Daos aboriginal text was written during the time of the Warring States, the period of turmoil that ended with the unification of China under Qin. In Hero he is still years away from this great accomplishment, simply the king of Qin.Yimous best recent films The Story of Qiu Ju (1992) and Not One Less contain the same concept of speaking stories to power. Yimou has struggled with authorities over who gets to tell the authentic story how divergent it can be from the official version . He still has movies such as To Live that are officially banned in China today because of their recount of the unacceptably critical history of the the great unwasheds Republic of china form 1945 to the 70s (Hero, 3).Both Farewell My Concubine and Hero are marvelous spectacles, demonstrating in differing styles various allegiances, alliances, and betrayals even renunciation of individual loyalty for the greater good. A glimpse of turbulent Chinese history can be gleaned through the films. The international audience is so much the richer for having these works in their repetoire.ReferencesClark, P. (2005). Republic of China A Generation and its Films. 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