Motorcycle Safety Essay

Motorcycles don’t posses many safety features that protect their rider. A car contains seat belts, airbags, four wheels for stability, and more; these are important features that help reduce accident and fatality rates. These issues only add to the main problem which is the drivers themselves, I am talking about both motorcycle rider and automobile driver. These two figures represent the majority of those on the streets, they are either inexperienced drivers or to comfortable with their driving habits and lack the attention needed to avoid situations that can arise quickly. Motorcycle safety is something not only riders need to be taught but other motorists as well; educating the population can not only reduce accidents but save lives. â€Å"Motorcycle rider deaths were nearly 30 times more than drivers of other vehicles† (D. O. T 7). Figures like this present an insight into the continuing problem represented by motorcycles. â€Å"Motorcycle accidents continue to be a growing problem as of 2008 5,290 were killed as a result of motorcycle accidents which is an increase of %2 over 2007† (Motorcycle Safety Foundation 4). Though the issue continues to grow, there is much to be done to put down the problem and save lives. The main issue is from the start, riders need much more rigorous training. Today you only take a computer or written test for a permit, which states you’re not allowed to ride at night or on the interstate but still allows you to ride during the day by yourself. You could get one of these permits with no riding experience what so ever, this is completely unacceptable for our society. Then to obtain your license you do a course test on your bike, where you weave through some cones and make a u turn and that’s it you can ride when ever where ever. â€Å"Adding injury to insult, helmet laws vary by state some don’t require one period some after 18 and so on† (Snyder 1). In Arizona after your 18th birthday coupled with the little safety experience the rider may have if any, one can ride around no helmet no experience. Three-fourths of motorcycle accidents involved collision with another vehicle. The majority of accidents involve both parties colliding in some fashion. In two-thirds of accidents the driver of the other vehicle violated the motorcycle right-of-way and caused the accident. This points out that in the 66% of accidents that occur it’s the automobiles fault for impeding the motorcycles path of travel. This only proves the motorists should be required to achieve the same level of knowledge on motorcycle safety as the riders themselves should be. These types of situations could have been avoided had there been mandated requirements for some type of instruction and coaching on the subject of safety when it comes to handling the presence of a motorcycle. I’m trying to show that the main cause of accidents are such minor mistakes that a simple class that addresses these issue might help prevent at least one accident from occurring. The issue is not a complicated one, people don’t pay attention and accidents happen. The worst of all the situations is when both parties are attempting to pass through an intersection. Intersections are the most likely place for the motorcycle accident, with the other vehicle violating the motorcycle right of way, and often violating traffic controls. It most often happens when the automobile is making a left turn at the intersection and as the motorcycle is coming through the auto fails yield to the oncoming rider forcing the motorcycle to T bone the car. This is the top reported design of most accident scenes nationwide, and this is something so simple to avoid for if these drivers had been involved actively in a motorcycle safety course they would know about this fact and how important it is to apply a little more attention when dealing with intersections. This is not only important to the driver of a car but the rider of the bike would also know this fact and adhere to it so when approaching every intersection the rider would exercise extreme caution to avoid injury. During these courses teachers can take the opportunity to stress the importance of safety equipment and clothing, this includes everything from head to toe. All safety equipment is important but it’s widely agreed the most important is the helmet. Unhelmeted motorists are 29 percent less likely to survive a crash and 40 percent more likely to die from a head. It’s suggested that a rider purchase a full-face helmet, one that completely covers the rider’s entire face and head There is activity among city officials to try and spread the word about safety; the city’s Transportation Department will work with the Governor’s Office of Highway Safety to blanket automobile and motorcycle drivers with safety pamphlets. It’s this kind of action that is needed to start a bigger campaign on the growing issue, though it is a start tougher legislation is needed to help mandate courses for all motorists in an effort to reduce the increase in accidents as well as fatality rates among riders. It is belief that through educating the driving population we can make serious cuts in the accident and fatality rates. The drivers of cars and trucks are the main target for they hold the majority share of causing accidents with motorcycles, the safety of both parties needs to addressed for they both need education on how to keep the road ways safe because if one life is saved it’s a victory. For my sources I used lot of research and data from the Motorcycle safety foundation and the D. O. T along with other various groups that are involved in motorcycle safety and I also got some of my material from 3 different Arizona Republic articles that addressed motorcycles and safety.

Reflective Piece †“Why?” Essay

Cast away in the distances, abandoned some may call it searching for a better life, others may utter. Trying to find a better way, Parents may justify. Truly, did you think it would make it any better? Financially†¦ the world you seek to provide an answer? Where’s your justification? Does money make the world go round or does a household make it? You see the fine line drawn, A child thrown into the dark to search for the dim light. On the brink, some may survive Fallen, some never saw the light again, But for both their days were always dark. What does a man left in the wild to be raised by animals become? Nothing– physically, an animal mentally. Who can love a child more than a parent can? Anyone . . . but what’s its value? Just naught for the heart will forever be digging for The original source of love. For the mother, from the father, And when abandoned, the heart will still dig, Digging on a hardened floor, Searching for the light, searching for love, Searching for care and attention, In the wrong place, in the cold ground, Where the humanity sheds, and a lustful soul craves destruction. Depression creates a shell, Suicidal tendencies take the roles of demons And seduces like a brightly coloured snake. Ropes become an attraction, Death becomes a consistent thought Violence becomes a an expression of goodwill, Goodwill that is not even there, How can the unwanted love? How can the empty live unless he has a strong heart And once again, who’s there to love And what do you love with but the heart? Language Analysis The reflective piece, ‘Why?’ is a poem written from a teenagers point of view and it serves to inform the reader of how a teen may feel when their parents have migrated leaving them in the care of somebody else who is incapable of caring for them. Language registers and dialectal variation can be seen throughout the passage and they will be analysed. Language registers refers to the perceived attitude and level of formality associated with a variety of language. A formal register is seen in the piece and this is due to the fact that the writer is talking to a mature audience. This formal tone is appropriate as the subject matter being discussed is one of a serious nature. The stage from childhood to adulthood, that is, teenage years is of paramount importance as this defines what type of person they will become when they are adults. This could be the difference between becoming a juvenile delinquent and a model student. An example of this can be seen in lines 30 – 35. Where the persona speaks of being depressed to the point where hanging one’s self would be the only right thing to do Dialectal variation refers to the spoken and written differences within a speech community. Throughout this reflective piece Standard English is used. The writer may have chosen to use Standard English due to the fact that it they are addressing a mature audience to whom the message is being delivered and in most instances are not au fait with the trending teenage slang. On the other hand the fact that the persona is addressing a mature audience using a formal tone may lead to them using  Standard English. This is so as when addressing persons older than them, teenagers usually speak English. An example of a situation like this could be the classroom setting and the target audience of the poem are persons in authority and parents. Another reason could be due to the fact that the persona sees English as being superior to Patois and as such does not use it.

Ikea Strategic in Action Essay

Part strategic position and strategic choice which mention above are underlining company environment, capability, and its strategy. Strategy in action will consider on how strategy act in organisation (Johnson et al., 2011a).This part of report will evaluate them considering their suitability. Evaluation IKEA strategies regards Suitability Suitability refers to the strategy is used to evaluate whether the strategies address the key ‘opportunities’ and ‘constraints’ underlined by the organisation’s strategic position (Johnson et al., 2008). This criterion can be examined by checking the strategic options against the environment, capabilities and the stakeholder expectations. Therefore, the analysing of PESTEL, Five Forces and strategic capabilities of IKEA in section above will be helpful for evaluating and understanding suitability. It appears that suitability is used to evaluate whether overall rationale of strategy is suitable in terms of environment and capabilities and stakeholder expectations or not. Therefore, this part of report not only evaluates IKEA strategies and capabilities regard in suitability but its successes and difficulties will be analysed. Firstly, from PESTEL analysis, IKEA takes advantage from ‘hybrid’ and ‘cost leadership’ strategy to response to its environment. IKEA’s products are cheap and differentiate; these are good opportunities to survive in economic recession. Additionally, IKEA’s core customers (middle class with moderate disposable income) are affordable to buy products even if in economic recession. Moreover, IKEA capabilities are strong global brand and low cost products with flat packaging which is its core resource and competence. Combining its capabilities and its strategies will benefit IKEA to achieve in environment changed and competitive circumstance. However, the difficulty is about import issue. All IKEA normally sources products from the same places in order to keep it standard. However, in some countries the import taxes are very high. For example in China, the import taxes on products from Poland to China are up to 22% (Burt el al., 2011). However, to stand its low price strategy and survive in China market, IKEA overcome this difficulty by sourcing goods from local country to reduce cost of taxation (Burt el al., 2011). In overall, it can be seen that in these circumstances and environmental change, the strategies IKEA has been used is a good opportunities to overcome those threats and suitable in its environment. Secondly, from Five Forces analysis, IKEA strategies and its capabilities can go along with external environment very well. It is normal that buyers are looking for cheap products but high quality. IKEA strategies are support customer needs. Furthermore, IKEA unique resources such as strong brand combining with its ‘hybrid’ strategy will maintain existing customers and gain more new buyers. In a term of power of supplier, IKEA’s strategies are suitable to supplier expectations. To generate low cost products, IKEA has to reduce cost of sale per unit by purchasing a large volume of material s from supplier. As well as suppliers, they also want to sell their products as much as possible. Moreover, considering in threat of new entry, IKEA strategies and capabilities are difficult for new entrants to compete. These are the reasons why IKEA takes opportunity from its strategies and capabilities among these threats. In addition, in the rivalry situation, it can be assumed that whether other companies offer low cost products but its quality, design, and brand image may not be the same as IKEA. IKEA considers in quality as well as the price. However, in high competitive markets, IKEA may face difficulties. For example in China which local products are normally cheap, IKEA low price strategy may not attract to this market. Giving a suggestion, in order to offer only low cost products, IKEA should build brand image as a high quality brand and offer Swedish-designed product which differentiate in Chinese customer perception. In overall, it appears that IKEA capabilities and its strategies are suitable to compete in the rivalry situation. IKEA generates its strengths and overcome the weaknesses in a suitable way. Thirdly, evaluation of suitability of IKEA strategies and capabilities according to Ansoff analysis of 4 possible development directions will be examined. The suitability will be evaluated whether these options will match to future scenario. The future scenario which matches in a term of economical environment is predicted that the world economy will maintain very weak in 2013 and slightly decrease between 2014 and 2016 (The Guardian, 2012). Apart from evaluation the suitability of IKEA strategies and capability, the suitability will be used to assessment whether IKEA strategic options meet the stakeholder expectations (Johnson et al., 2008). Table 5 Evaluation of suitability – Direction of growth In overall, IKEA strategies and capabilities are suitable in the environment and meet the expectation of stakeholders. Market penetration may be the most appropriate direction that IKEA should carry on at the present time to the future scenario predicted. There is no major investment needed. The IKEA current strategies and its capabilities is now effective under this circumstance. However, there is a difficulty in IKEA’s strategies. IKEA is a global company which generates same strategies almost every market called one-size-fit-all approach (Stern, 2012). Although, one-size-fit-all approach will benefit IKEA to control it global strategies easily, the difficulty will occur. The problem is every market is all difference. The one-size-fits-all approach on all IKEA staff and customers is good to share the same value but for all market is not suitable. The different markets have different circumstance. For example, according to Anders Dahlvig cited in Stern (2012), the differences between countries were great in China and Sweden. China is different territory. Chinese labour policies are poor for IKEA co-worker vision. Chinese workforce depends on the authority of the boss which is difficult to adapt to the more free and easy way of the new employer (Stern, 2012). Moreover, in the future, if IKEA wants to expand their market and make the differentiation, the policy and restriction in some countries may be serious such as in Islamic countries, and the differentiation needs lots of investment and knowledge. IKEA should consider how to stay the low price while a lot of investment is needed.

Police Discretion in Domestic Violence Research Paper

Police Discretion in Domestic Violence - Research Paper Example Most police officers feel that a domestic dispute is a private matter that should be handled by both parties. However, police officers mostly rely on their experience as police officers to handle the situation as they think appropriate. Police Discretion in Domestic Violence Introduction Family problems which breed domestic violence are universal issues which affect all members of the family including parents and children. Domestic violence can be fatal, but it can be effectively controlled with the proper implementation of law and timely and appropriate intervention by the police. Police reactions to incidents of domestic violence have usually depended upon the attitude and discretion of the officer involved in investigating the reported incident. â€Å"Discretion can be characterized as the authority of the police officer to chose his/her course of action or inaction. Police have discretionary powers in their positions as protectors of the public and upholders of the law. A lot ha s been written about police discretion in the criminal justice field procedures. It has been proved that arrests in such matters reduce incidences, as the offender might not repeat the offence for fear of prosecution. Many abused women do not call the police because they feel that they will not be taken seriously, and the police might make use of its discretionary powers and not arrest the abuser. In such cases, it leads to further violence causing greater injury or harm to the spouse, partner or children. Sometimes women do not report domestic violence because they do not want their spouse or partner to be arrested and sent to prison (Green & Kelso, 2010). Discussed below are some of pros and cons of the police discretion in domestic violence. Police discretion was an unmentionable subject right up to 1956, when it was brought to light by an American Bar Foundation Study. Until then, no one would admit that it was a reality. The approach of police high-ups was that any digression f rom accepted or written down procedures was not permissible by law, and most probably a basis for dishonesty. When it became public knowledge, the police administration made efforts to play it down or even have it outlawed. The actual problem lies in the abuse of discretion, not in its implementation. Police discretion is now accepted as an indispensable malevolence, which can be of great use if used properly. Community policing is where officers can exercise discretion to help the community more effectively. Discretion is good when it is managed and well thought-out. (Green & Kelso, 2010) Defining Police Discretion Some facts which can be regarded as both pros and cons depending upon application have described â€Å"police discretion† as an area where the law is not implemented or as the â€Å"gap in the doughnut†. Discretion is the vacant space which is surrounded by the relevant set of principles and procedures. Alternatively, it can be described as cases where no r ules are applicable and the officer makes a personal decision based on beliefs, assumptions and his own interpretation of the situation. Discretion is not the same as repetitive and consistent compliance. It entails information, talent and the ability to act and perform in random and awkward situations. Police are not soldiers who must obey orders blindly and without question. Police must be quite

Fashion Police - Flint Cracks Down on Sagging Essay

Fashion Police - Flint Cracks Down on Sagging - Essay Example Flint The essay "Fashion Police - Flint Cracks Down on Sagging" gives a detailed information about photographies of fashion and provides a critique on the trends in them. The pants are not being used for the purpose that they were made for. As for the third picture, in which not only underwear is showing but so is the butt, the image is offensive, which is to say that the male the image is depicting is offensive. Private parts of the body should be covered up and not on display for everyone to see. Furthermore, both the pants and the underwear no longer serve their purpose of keeping those areas covered up. As for the comments based on each picture, stating that the picture in which the pants sag but still remain above the butt, are correct. At least in this first image the male is merely sagging his pants, showing a little bit of underwear, which is something that can happen to someone who is not even wearing saggy pants. Though I disagree that the second image where the male has hi s pants below the butt is considered disorderly conduct. He is showing much more of himself than he needs to be, and therefore this should be considered indecent exposure, just as the third image is considered. After reading the article that accompanies the photograph, the purpose behind the â€Å"criminal offense† system of sagging pants seems almost as ridiculous as the sagging pants themselves. Arresting people simply because their pants sag a little too low seems like a cheap way for a police officer.

Economics Extanded Essay, Coursework for the IB Essay

Economics Extanded , Coursework for the IB - Essay Example Irrespective of the product or service that is being studied; it is apparent that all of a sudden the information flow has become more rapid, regulatory structures more oriented to free market structures and the movement of capital and permission to access local markets freer. This has prompted national businesses to target global businesses and the global businesses to target national markets. However lumpiness in the control of market shares is seen as yet which has tended to be diluted monopoly or monopolistic controls of the past and the structures have tended to turn, in general, to oligopolistic structures. Banking industry is no exception. Main features of banking industry, irrespective of jurisdiction have been a long standing history of business, ready demands for its products and services (baring economic downturns) and specific protection enjoyed from the national governments It has experienced a more benign and structured capital adequacy regimes in the form of Basle I an d now Basle II apart from a host of other suggestive and market discipline based stipulations. Fact remains that banks enable target customers to do the essential functions of saving, investing and storing money or money equivalents and therefore banks tend to have a loyal and core segment of consumers on most jurisdictions where they have chosen to operate. Spanish banks are no exception. This has spurred market control strategies from the banks and these strategies coalesce to determine as to what exact form of market does the banking industry of a particular time looks like. Literature has often pointed out to the extent of competition in the banking industry: "Competition has become a recurrent topic in the banking literature. Specifically, during the last decade a great deal of empirical work has attempted to measure the level of competition prevailing in European banking markets. The beginning of the third stage of the Economic and Monetary Union, in January 1999, and the proj ected changeover to the Euro triggered the interest of researchers in this issue" (Rozas, 2007). This paper has the objective of examining the Spanish banking industry and to ascertain, if over the years, such an industry has come to acquire the market form of an oligopoly. This done through an in depth literature review where major arguments are sourced and analyzed and conclusion arrived ,on the basis of such an analysis, if the present day Spanish banking industry resembles a oligopolistic structure. Research Methodology Competition studies in banking industry of various jurisdictions is a very well thought out and researched topic and the literature in this area is rich with several aspects being already examined through deep empirical and theoretical research. Literature also has in store several models of depicting the shape and structure of the markets in which banking industry of a particular jurisdiction finds itself apart from listing and analysis of the various important factors that have caused the present

Confederation and Constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Confederation and Constitution - Essay Example The American constitution underwent a lengthy process during its drafting and various amendments have been made so that it can be more efficient for the governing of the states. In 1776, the continental congress drafted â€Å"the article of confederation† which brought together 13 founding states of the United States of America: This article was later ratified in 1781. In the article of confederation, the relationship between the uniting states was defined and also a common name was adopted for the union of the states (Howard, 2005). After various administrative set backs, this article of confederation was found to be inefficient and hence was later replaced by the American constitution in 1789. Though the article of confederation had some similarities with the constitution, these two documents were different in the following ways. The constitution established an organized form of government. The government was divided into three main braches, which included the executive, the judiciary, and the legislature. In the constitution, the executive was the supreme arm of the government and it was headed by the president. The constitution provided the rules and regulations governing election of the president and his deputy. However, in the article of confederation, there was no such structured government. The states had the liberty to decide the method of leadership they wanted. The constitution established a federal system government. In this system, the states had some authority.

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Management - Essay Example The human resources available to an organization have a key strategic role in acquiring, implementing and maintaining a competitive strategy. Supervisors, trainers and developers play a pivotal role in improving the transfer of training by communicating their support for potential learning. The attitude and responses of supervisors, peers and trainers to the trainee can either hurt or help the whole process. The action taken by these partners before, during and after the training directly affects the likelihood that transfer will occur properly. Although organizations spend a lot of time and money on employees’ training annually, there exists no significant relationship between learning and actual job performance. However, when the learned skills are successfully transferred into effective performance, organizations can surely produce better outcomes. As the technological, economic, social and political environment is in a state of continual flux, it is critical for learning o rganizations to adjust and adapt to the dynamic market trends. Over the last decade, the role of trainers and developers has changed in an increasingly integrated world where phones, internet and improvements in infrastructure have progressively changed relationships. The pace of development is so rapid that even trained experts are unable to regulate, monitor and control its impacts properly. What may be regarded as a cultural shift in many organizations, trainers and developers need to adopt a different attitude towards their own involvement in organizations. Such prevailing market conditions also make it imperative that trainers and developers play a more active role in communicating the benefits of training and dealing with the performance problems. This paper attempts to investigate as to how and why has the role of trainers and developers changed in the last ten years. The study will also suggest future developments in the changing role of trainers and developers. Finally, the conclusion will analyze factors influencing the change and suggest effective measures for further improvements. Theory For decades, training and development of human resources is believed to have key strategic importance in determining the organization’s overall performance. As a field, training and development is considered to have evolved during the industrial revolution in America. In the present era of globalization, technological expansions have diversified the traditional role played by trainers and developers. According to a survey, a trainer these days assumes the job of a â€Å"corporate trainer, performance practitioner, lecturer, OD specialist, performance analyst, training leader, employee development specialist, operations improvement coordinator, leadership training associate, training sergeant, and continuous learning and improvement coach at the same time† (ASTD, 1996). From 2000 onwards, the role has become even more versatile with the industrial inte gration and advent of various technological aids. As the term suggests, human resource development is itself â€Å"the process of moving from one place to another, a process that we normally count as ‘change’

W2D 590 Senator Hillary Clinton Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

W2D 590 Senator Hillary Clinton - Essay Example edia analyses to first-hand accounts of the perceptive attitudes of the general electorate, Clinton’s presidential bid brought to the fore the indelible colored nature of the expectations that majority of Americans have about their diversity. That even though she, Hillary Clinton, possessed some of the stereotypically masculine character traits associated with leadership positions such as being assertive, competitive, and even aggressive in a measurable way to those of the opposite gender, the ballot verdict was expressive: she was still not good enough to Take Charge, beyond the conventional nurturing and collaborative role (Drexler, 2014). One of the first female personalities to strongly seek for the oval office, Clinton was not only going to be discussed and dissected for her results, but also on the basis of the conventional gender roles. Indeed as expected, she is often described as empathetic and a good listener (Wolvin, 2005); qualities that befits her as a mother besides other traits include her hardworking nature. Chris Matthews, a host on MSNBC, however, went as far as pegging her national status not because of her very inner personality but on the husband; a clear indication of how far tradition still creeps in to influence American leadership (Sheckels,

Eulogy Case Essay Example for Free

Eulogy Case Essay The obituary is a section that most newspapers have and despite being buried in the back of the newspaper, is a section of the paper that most people read, at least in passing. Older people read it to see if they can find anyone that they know. Younger people might read it to see how old somebody was when they died or if they are aware of history, to see what famous person might have died. There are also people who are fascinated by others and wish to read what one has accomplished in their life. It is amazing that an entire life can be summed up in a few paragraphs. What else is amazing is exactly who receives an obituary in the paper at all. The small town papers will memorialize anyone whose information they receive from a family member or other source. That person would pass unnoticed except for the kind remembrance of their family members still living. This is not the case in the larger newspapers. The Chicago Tribune, with a readership estimated at just fewer than three million, has limited space and therefore, can only print the obituaries of people who have distinguished themselves in a way that society deems worthy. For the week of February 18th to February 23rd, the obituaries were studied to see exactly who was receiving the posthumous honor of having their name in one of the largest newspapers in the country. The first eulogy is that of Jack Kipp. (1923-2007) (Kates, 2007) The man had humble beginnings in Chicago. His mental and physical deficiencies left him out of service for WWII but yet he found his way onto the Midwest Stock Exchange in Chicago, second only to the New York Stock Exchange in size and influence. Mr. Kipp was a man who straddled both financial classes. Since he worked for the Chicago Stock Exchange, he would accurately be considered among the upper class. This would continue as he helped form another financial firm in the 1970’s and made a good deal of money at this venture. But when he retired, he remembered the people who were not given a chance to reach the heights that he had attained and spend the last 16 years of his life tutoring individuals into earning their GEDs. His son said that he had a desire to help his fellow man and saw this as his chance to do so. So his social status helps him get into the Tribune? He lived a long life 84 years, all of them in Chicago. This is a helpful contributing factor and the fact that he formed his own investment firm was probably the factor which helped to secure his place in the Tribune. Only in the byline does it talk about his volunteer work. This would lead the reader to believe that if he were just a volunteer and did rise to the financial levels that he had, his obituary would not have been found in the Chicago Tribune but perhaps a local newspaper since the Chicago land area is able to support dozens of smaller though, significant newspapers. Another notable obituary is that of Dr. Joan Swift. (1919-2007) Dr. Swift was hired as the coordinator of the child development program at Wilson Junior College. In only three short years, she was promoted to the Dean of Directors in 1968 which is a position that she held until 1983. She grew up in New York but spent the last 55 years in Hyde Park, a suburb of Chicago. Here are two examples where an individual has lived a long life, most of it in and around Chicago and rose to a moderate level of success to which that success was met by a notable duration. The article did not specify her financial background and even though she did rise to a high level within the teaching profession. The headline and byline of the obituary makes the reader believe that simply a teacher would not have been given so many inches of column space unless the duration of his/her tenure was to the length that it was noteworthy. The third and last obituary is of Dr. Kenneth Rehage. (1910-2007) (Jensen, 2007) He was from the area as a professor at the University of Chicago in the 1960’s. This fact alone, on a slow news day would ensure his placement within the obituary section of The Chicago Tribune along with his long life. But what made his life even more noteworthy was the fact that he spent the last half of his life setting up secondary schools in Pakistan. Not only did he set up schools there but traveled there hundreds of times in order to help train the instructors there. Dr. Rehange spoke the language and left his home open to students from Pakistan to stay and consider his home and place away from home. He is remembered fondly by his former students even though he stopped teaching in the 1970’s. Dr. Rehange was not a man of great wealth and the headline of his obituary talks only about his development of schools in Pakistan. In this respect, his social class was a contributing factor but if he was just another rich man who had died, it does not seem probable that his life would have made the obituary section. He was a humanitarian to a degree that is not seen in a day to day basis and that is why he made the Tribune. The Chicago Tribune, reaching a population of millions, has a great deal of space restraint that they have to follow. There has to be a selection process in order to place the obituaries of people who have established their life as one whose death will serve as an impediment to some aspect of Chicago and its surrounding area. The kindly neighbor down the street will not be a likely selection to make the Tribune but would rather be a better fit in any of the local papers in the area. Each of the three obituaries that were described had a 1 inch by 2 inch picture along with roughly 300-400 words used to describe their life. It is impossible for the obituary section to follow this format for every person who dies in Chicago on a given day. So unfortunately, a father who is extremely important to his family as well as his co workers and wife of 50 years, will not be seen as â€Å"important enough† to make the Tribune. He has no great wealth, made no special discovery or contribution to science nor did he hit 500 home runs. But if his family wants him to be remembered in print, most towns will have the space available to detail their loved ones life in print in a way that would honor their humble, though important, achievements. LITERATURE CITED Kates, Joan. Longtime Securities Trader. Chicago Tribune February 19, 2007 Section 3 p. 9 Jensen, Trevor. Helped Develop Schools in Pakistan. Chicago Tribune February 21, 2007 Section 3 p. 11

Properties of Cartilage Tissue

Properties of Cartilage Tissue Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction Joint cartilage is highly sophisticated and has been optimised by evolution. There have been considerable research interests related to the cartilage cells, chondrocytes. In the last decades these studies made cartilage the first and very successful tissue engineering treatment. (Brittberg et al. 1994) 1.2 Categorization of cartilage tissue Cartilage tissue are categorised in three major types by their different biochemical composition and structure of their extracellular matrix (ECM). Elastic cartilage has a few cells, a small concentration of proteoglycans (PGs), and a relatively high proportion of elastin fibres. It is found in the epiglottis, small laryngeal, the external ear, auditory tube, and the small bronchi, where it is generally required to resist bending forces. Fibrocartilage also contains a small concentration of PGs, but far less elastin. The meniscus in the knee joint is made of fibrocartilaginous tissue. The third and most widespread cartilage in the human body is hyaline. It is resistant to compression or tensile forces due to the network organisation of type II collagen fibres associated with a high concentration of PGs. Hyaline cartilage can be found in the nose, the trachea, bronchi, and synovial joints. In the latter case, it is termed as articular cartilage, representing a unique type of connectiv e tissue. Its outwards thin layer covers the articulating joint surfaces and belies a specific structure with unique mechanical properties. These two layers acting as a covering material, is fibricated by the viscous synovial fluid. The joint capsule encloses the entire joint and retains the synovial fluid. (Schulz and Bader, 2006) 1.3 Composition of articular cartilage Articular cartilage is composed of chondrocytes and an extracellular matrix that consists of proteoglycans, collagens and water. (Darling and Athanasiou 2005) Chondrocytes contribute only between 5% of the tissue volume; the remaining 95% being composed of extracellular matrix (ECM), which is synthesised by the chondrocytes. (Mollenhauer, 2008; Buckwalter et al. 1988) The ECM of articular cartilage consists of about 60-85% water and dissolved electrolytes. The solid framework is composed of collagens (10-20%), PGs (3-10%), noncollagenous proteins and glycoproteins. (Buckwalter et al. 1997; Buckwalter et al. 1990) In articular cartilage, 95% of collagen in the ECM is comprised of collagen type II fibrils. The rest other collagen types are collagen type IX and XI and a small fraction of types III, VI, XII and XIV. (Eyre 2002) Type-I collagen forms thick fibres. Type-III forms thin  ¬Ã‚ bres. Unlike these two collagens, Type-II collagen which is present in hyaline and elastic cartila ges does not form  ¬Ã‚ bres, and its very thin  ¬Ã‚ brils are disposed as a loose mesh that strongly interacts with the ground substance. (Montes, 1996) This collagen component in articular cartilage provides tensile stiffness and strength to the tissue and opposes the swelling capacity generated by highly negatively charged glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) of the proteoglycans (PGs). The majority (50-85%) of the overall PG content in this tissue type were presented by large molecule aggrecan. This consist of a protein backbone, the core protein, to which unbranched GAGs side chains of chondroitin sulphate (CS) and keratan sulfate (KS) are covalently attached. ( 1.1) (Watanabe et al. 1998; Schulz and Bader, 2006) 1.1. Illustration of the extracellular matrix (ECM) organization of articular cartilage (Left) and the schematic sketches (Right) of the most relevant polysaccharides of proteoglycans (PGs) in articular cartilage. The PGs consist of a strand of hyaluronic acid (HA), to which a core protein is non-covalently attached. On the core protein, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) such as keratan sulphate (KS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) are covalently bound in a bottle brush fashion. (Modified from Schulz and Bader, 2006 and Mow and Wang, 1999) 1.4 Low capacity of self-repair The aneural and avascular nature of articular cartilage, coupled with its low cellularity, contribute to both the limited rate and incomplete nature of the repair process following damage. (Heywood et al., 2004) In addition, the low mitotic potential of chondrocytes in vivo also contributes to its poor ability to undergo self-repair. (Kuroda et al., 2006) Indeed, in experimental studies on adult animals, full-thickness cartilage defects extending into the subchondral bone, have been reported to heal with the formation of fibrous tissue, which contains relatively low amounts of type II collagen and aggrecan. It is also composed of a relatively high content present in type I collagen, not present in normal adult articular cartilage and accordingly exhibits impaired mechanical integrity. (Hjertquist et al., 1971; Eyre et al., 1992) 1.5 Metabolism of articular cartilage Joint cartilage is supplied with nutrients and oxygen by the synovial fluid diffusion facilitated by compressive cyclic loading during joint movements as a pumping function. (Mollenhauer, 2008) Chondrocytes are imbedded in ECM. Within synovial joints, oxygen supply to articular chondrocytes is very limited. The oxygen tensions are very low varying from around 6% at the joint surface to 1% in the deep layers of healthy articular cartilage. It is supposed to be even further decreased under pathological conditions, such as osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis. The metabolism of chondrocytes is largely glycolytic. Oxygen-dependent energy generated by oxidative phosphorylation is just a minor contributor to the overall energy in chondrocytes. Articular chondrocytes appear to show a so-called negative Pasteur effect, whereby, glycolysis falls as O2 levels drop leading to the fall in ATP and matrix synthesis. (Gibson JS et al., 2008) A negative Pasteur effect would make chondrocytes parti cularly liable to suffer a shortage of energy under anoxic conditions. (Lee and Urban, 1997) Changes in O2 tension also have profound effects on cell phenotype, gene expression, and morphology, as well as response to, and production of, cytokines. Condrocytes live in hypoxic environments implies that speci ¬Ã‚ c factors are required to control certain genes that are responsible for glucose metabolism, energy metabolism, pH regulation, and other responses. The most important component of this hypoxic response is mediated by transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), which is present in most hypoxia inducible genes. (Pfander and Gelse, 2007; Gibson JS et al., 2008) HIF-1a is necessary for anaerobic energy generation by upregulation of glycolytic enzymes and glucose transporters. (Yudoh et al. 2005) A previous study shows chondrocytes are not able to survive hypoxia in the absence of HIF-1. (Schipani et al. 2001) Moreover, the matrix turnover in articular cartilage is extremely slow. Proteoglycan turnover is up to 25 years. Collagen half-life is estimated to range from several decades up to 400 years. No immune-competent cells (macrophages, T-cells) enter the cartilage tissue. Thus chondrocytes have to defend themselves against hostile microorganisms, leading to its immunologically privileged. (Mollenhauer, 2008) 1.6 Mechanical conditions in vivo In vivo joint loading can result in high peak mechanical stresses (15-20 MPa) that occur over very short durations (1 s) causing cartilage compressive strains of only 1-3%. (Mollenhauer, 2008; Hodge et al., 1986) In contrast, sustained physiological stresses applied to knee joints for 5-30 min can cause compressive strains in certain knee cartilages as high as 40-45%. (Mollenhauer, 2008; Herberhold et al., 1999) A study of the response of articular cartilage from humans to impact load showed that articular cartilage could withstand impact loads of as much as 25 MPa at strain rates from 500 to 1000 s-1 without apparent damage. Impact loads exceeding this level caused chondrocyte death or fissure in the hip or knee. (Repo RU and Finlay JB, 1977) Chapter 2 Osteoarthritis and Treatments 2.1 Osteoarthritis, diagnosis and classification Most cartilage defects are due to direct trauma, but may also occur in avascular necrosis, osteochondritis dissecans, and a variety of cartilage disorders. The defect may be limited to the joint surface (chondral) or involve the underlying bone (osteochondral). (NHS guidance 2006) Articular cartilage defects can progress to osteoarthritis (OA) in some patients, which is a major health problem in developed countries. (Kuroda et al. 2006; Schulz and Bader, 2006; Buckwalter, 2002; Cicuttini 1996) Symptoms may include pain, catching, locking and swelling, and may lead to degenerative changes within the joint. (NHS guidance 2006) Arthroscopy has been used as the â€Å"gold standard† to confirmed cartilage defects. In a review of 31,516 knee arthroscopies of cartilage injury patients, the incidence of chondral lesions was 63%; the incidence of full-thickness articular cartilage lesions with exposed bone were 20% , with 5% of these occurring in patients under 40-years-old. (Marlovits, et al. 2008) Osteoarthritis (OA) severity is commonly graded from radiographic images in accordance with the Kellgren and Lawrence scale Bilateral. (Kellgren and Bier, 1956; Kellgren and Lawrence, 1957) Osteoporosis and erosions which included narrowing of joint space were recorded separately and graded as follows: 0 = no changes; 1 = doubtful joint space narrowing; 2 = minimal change, mostly characterized by osteophytes; 3 = moderate change, characterized by multiple osteophytes and/or definite joint space narrowing; and 4 = severe change, characterized by marked joint space narrowing with bone-on-bone contact with large osteophytes. (Kellgren and Bier, 1956; Husing et al. 2003) The radiologic grade of OA was inversely associated with the joint space width (JSW). (Agnesi et al. 2008) MRI is currently the standard method for cartilage evaluation, as it is a non-invasive, non-contact, multi-planar technique capable of producing high resolution, high contrast images in serial contiguous slices and it enables morphological assessment of the cartilage surface, thickness, volume and subchondral bone. The MRI classification of articular chondral defects are as follows: 1=Abnormal intrachondral signal with a normal chondral surface; 2=Mild surface irregularity and/or focal loss of less than 50% of the cartilage thickness; 3=Severe surface irregularity with focal loss of 50% to 100% of the cartilage thickness; 4=Complete loss of articular cartilage, with exposure of subchondral bone. (Marlovits et al. 2008) Agnesi et al. compared the radiologic grading of OA patients with the joint surface width measurements obtained from MRI images. (Agnesi et al. 2008) 2.2 Non-tissue engineering treatments Pain caused by osteoarthritis can be reduced through a number of methods. (Altman et al. 2006) These include: â€Å"Exercise programmes (strength and flexibility) and lifestyle changes Medication Dietary supplements Knee viscosupplementation Guidelines for viscosupplementation Other injections Custom foot orthotics Knee braces Other assisted devices (canes and walkers) Surgery† Total knee replacement is most commonly performed in people over 60 years of age. (NHS guidance, 2006; Altman et al., 2006; Brittberg et al., 1994) Besides that, the most frequently used treatments include the mosaicplasty, marrow stimulation, and autologous condrocyte implantation (ACI). (Steinwachs et al., 2008) Mosaicplasty is an autologous osteochondral transplantation method through which cylindrical periosteum grafts are taken from periphery of the patellofemoral area which bears less weight, and transplanted to defective areas. This transplantation can be done with various diameters of grafts. (Haklar et al., 2008; NHS guidance, 2006) Marrow stimulation methods include arthroscopic surgery to smooth the surface of the damaged cartilage area; microfracture, drilling, abrasion. All marrow stimulation methods base on the penetration of the subchondral bone plate at the bottom of the cartilage defect. The outflowing bone marrow blood contains the mesenchymal stem cells which are s tabilised by the clot formation in the defect. These pluripotent stem cells which are able to differentiate into fibrochondrocytes, result in fibrocartilage repair with varying amounts of type I, II and III collagen. (Steinwachs et al., 2008) 2.3 The tissue engineering treatment A 1984 study in rabbits reported successful treatment of focal patellar defects with the use of autologous condrocyte implantation (ACI). One year after transplantation, newly formed cartilage-like tissue typically covered about 70 percent of the defect. (Grande et al. 1989) In 1987, Mats Brittber et al. firstly performed ACI in 23 people with deep cartilage defects in the knee. (Brittberg et al., 1994) ACI is described as a three steps procedure: cartilage cells are taken from a minor load-bearing area on the upper medial femoral condyle of the damaged knee via an arthroscopic procedure, cultivated for four to six weeks in a laboratory and then, in open surgery, introduced back into the damaged area as a liquid or mesh-like transplant; at last, a periosteal flap sutured in place to secure the transplant. ( 2.1) (Husing et al., 2008) The cell density of the cultivated cell solution is required to be 30 x 106 cells/ml, or 2 x 106 cells per cm2 in a clinical setting today. (Brittberg e t al., 2003) Genzyme Biosurgery with its product Carticel ® was the first company which introduced ACT into the market and is market leader in USA. Carticel ® is a classic ACT procedure using the periosteal cover. (Husing et al., 2008) Today the periosteum is often replaced by an artificial resorbable cover such as collagen I/III and hyaluronan membrane, such as ChondroGide or Restore (De Puy, Warzaw, Indiana). (Gooding et al., 2006; Jones and Peterson, 2006) Another new method uses chondrocytes cultured on a three-dimensional, biodegradable scaffold. The scaffold, cut to the required size, is fixed into the lesion site with anchoring stitches. This method does not need the cover, thus simplifying the surgery and shorting the surgery time; opens up the possibility of arthroscopic surgery instead of open surgery which causes more tissue damage. HYALOGRAFT from Italy is one of the European market leaders. It is a cartilage substitute made of autologous chondrocytes delivered on a biocompatible tridimentsional matrix, entirely composed of a derivative of hyaluronic acid. (Marcacci et al. 2005) 2.4 Clinical follow-ups of ACI Brittberg studied the long-term durability of ACI-treated patients, 61 patients were followed for at least five years up to 11 years post-surgery (mean 7.4 years). After two years, 50 out of 61 patients were graded good-excellent. At the five to 11 years follow-up, 51 of the 61 were graded good-excellent. The total failure rate was 16% (10/61) at mean 7.4 years. (Brittberg et al., 2003) Since 1997 the year the FDA approved ACI, this method has been widely performed all over the world, in more than 20 000 patients. It has been reported to be effective in  improving clinical symptoms, such as pain and function. (Wakitani et al., 2008) 2.5 Randomised studies In 2004, Knutsen et al. studied 80 patients who needed local cartilage repair because of symptomatic lesions on the femoral condyles measuring 2-10cm2. The results showed there was no signi ¬Ã‚ cant difference in macroscopic or histological results between ACI and microfracture, and that there was no association between the histological  ¬Ã‚ ndings and the clinical outcome at the 2-year time point. (Knutsen et al., 2004) In the same series, there were no signi ¬Ã‚ cant differences in results at 5 years follow-up. (Knutsen et al., 2007) In another randomised controlled study that compared mosaicplasty with ACI, there was no significant difference in the number of patients who had an excellent or good clinical outcome at 1 year (69% [29/42] and 88% [51/58], respectively). In the subgroup of patients who had repairs to lesions of the medial femoral condyle, significantly more patients who had ACI had an excellent or good outcome (88% [21/24]) compared with those who had mosaicplasty (72% [21/29]) (p 2.6 The limitation of ACI The microfracture is a very simple and low-cost procedure whereas ACI costs almost $10 000 per patient. If ACI is not found to be more effective for improving articular cartilage repair than microfracture, the procedure will not be continued. (Wakitani et al., 2008) There are several possible reasons which should be blamed for the limitations of the traditional ACI procedure. The cell source in ACI is the cartilage tissue taken from a minor load-bearing area on the upper medial femoral condyle of the damaged knee via an arthroscopic procedure. However, Wiseman et al. found the chondrocytes isolated from the low loaded area of the knee joint respond in a distinct manner with the chondrocytes from the high loaded area, which suggests the traditional cell source of ACI may not provide enough mechanical response and may further lead to the insufficient mechanical properties of the repaired tissue. (Wiseman et al. 2003) As cultured in monolayer, chondrocytes undergo a process of dedifferentiation and adopt a more  ¬Ã‚ broblast-like morphology, which is accompanied by an increase in proliferation (Glowacki et al., 1983) and an altered phenotype. Type II collagen, the major protein produced by chondrocytes in articular cartilage, are down-regulated culture, while collagen types I and III are increased. (Stocks et al., 2002; Benya et al., 1978) The agregating proteoglycan aggrecan of articular cartilage, is down-regulated during dedifferentiation and replaced by proteoglycans not speci ¬Ã‚ c to cartilage, such as versican. (Glowacki et al., 1983; Stocks et al., 2002) Therefore, monolayer cultured chondrocytes do not express the true chondrocyte phenotype, and their ability to regenerate damaged cartilage tissue is impaired. Upon implantation, dedifferentiated cells may form a  ¬Ã‚ brous tissue expressing collagen type I that does not have the proper mechanical properties, which may lead to deg radation and failure of the repair tissue. (Brodkin et al., 2004) Chondrocytes grown in conditions that support their round shape, such as plating in high-density monolayer (Kuettner et al., 1982; Watt, 1988) and seeding in 3-D gels (Benya et al., 1982) can maintain their differentiated phenotype much longer compared to cells spread in monolayer cultures. Chapter 3 Tissue engineering strategies for articular cartilage 3.1 Introduction Although ACI can still be considered to be one of commonly form of repair of cartilage defects, it does have a number of scientific limitations. Some of those can be resolved using a more comprehensive tissue engineered strategy which incorporates cells, scaffold materials and potentially biochemical, biomechanical and/or physical stimulation in a controlled bioreactor environment. 3.2 Cell sources For a conventional ACI approach, chondrocytes are derived from the low loading area and then cultured in a monolayer. However, chondrocytes derived from the low load bearing area of the knee joint respond in a distinct manner with the chondrocytes from the high loaded area. Chondrocytes cultured in monolayer have a dedifferentiation phenomenon (Described in the previous chapter). In addition, the limitation of the transplant volume is always a major problem in autograft to be overcome (Kitaoka et al., 2001). Thus, potential cell sources are widely studied for the future improvement of ACI approach. Chondrocytes from immature animals (approximately 1-6 weeks old) have been used widely in tissue engineering studies for their ability to increase matrix synthesis and to produce better mechanical properties (Darling and Athanasiou, 2005). Kitaoka et al. examined the possibility of using hyaline cartilage of costal cartilage as a substitute to the knee joint articular cartilage. Costal cartilage cells are derived from 8-week-old male SV40 large T-antigen transgenic mice. Three mouse chondrocyte cell lines (MCC-2, MCC-5, and MCC-35) were established using cloning cylinders, which is a kind of mold. These cell lines showed chondrocytic characteristics, including formation of cartilage nodules that could be stained with alcian blue, and mRNA expression for type II collagen, type XI collagen, ALPase, osteopontin, aggrecan, and link protein (Kitaoka et al., 2001). Animal-derived bone marrow cells, in particular from rabbit origin, have shown a highly variable chondrogenic potential (Solchaga et al., 1999). The establishment of some bone marrow stromal cell lines having the ability of diffrentiation to chondrocyte has been reported, as well as some other cell lines established from rat calvaria, mouse c-fos-induced cartilage tumor and mouse embryonic carcinoma, respectively. Each of the cell lines showed chondrocytic phenotypes (Kitaoka et al., 2001). LVEC cells derived from EBs of human embryonic germ cells were reported to be homogenously differentiated into hyaline cartilage. Three dimensional tissue formation is achieved by encapsulating cells in synthetic hydrogels poly (ethylene glycol diacrylate) (PEGDA) followed by incubation in chondrocyte-conditioned medium (for the recipe, please see the paper) (Varghese et al., 2006). Periosteum consists of two layers. Fibroblasts are from the fibrous layer and progenitor cells are from the cambium layer. Progenitor cells are supposed to be able to differentiate into chondrocytes. Emans et al. compared the chondrocyte and the periosteum cell as cell source for autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) on animals. The results turned out that the condrtocytes are much better for ACI procedure (Emans et al., 2006). 3.3 Scaffolds Biomaterial scaffolds provide a critical means of controlling engineered tissue architecture and mechanical properties; allow cells attach, grow in and proliferation; allow the cell signals travelling through (Freed et al., 2006). In many in vitro or in vivo approaches, cells are grown on biomaterial scaffolds for further research or just for implantation, where new functional tissue is formed, remodelled and integrated into the body. The biomaterials which compose scaffolds are required to satisfy several properties. At first, the material as a support structure must possess enough mechanical strength to protect the cells contained in. Secondly, the material must have some bioactivity to accommodate cells for attachment, growth, proliferation and migration. The material should act as a vehicle for gene, protein and oxygen delivery. Furthermore, the material should be biodegradable for the new cartilage to form and replace the original structure. In this regard, the material should be non-toxic, non-inflammatory active, and also non-immunogenic. Finally, the material should be easy to handle for surgery procedure (Stoop, 2008). 3.3.1 Natural materials Collagen-based biomaterials are widely used in todays clinical practice (for example, haemostasis and cosmetic surgery). Collagen is also be commonly used as main components in tissue engineered skin products. Several commercial autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) products have used collagenous membraneas the replacement for the periosteum to close the defect, such as ChondroGide or Restore (De Puy, Warzaw, Indiana) (Cicuttini et al., 1996; Jones and Peterson, 2006) The .combination of collagen with glycosaminoglycan (GAG) in scaffolds had a positive effect on chondrocyte phenotype. Condrocytes were cultured in porous type I collagen matrices in the presence and absence of covalently attached chondroitin sulfate (CS) up to 14 days in a study (van Susante et al., 2001). Hyaluronic acid is a non-sulphated GAG that makes up a large proportion of cartilage extracellular matrix. In its unmodified form, it has a high biocompatibility (Schulz and Bader, 2007). Matrices composed of hyaluronan have been frequently used as a carrier for chondrocytes. Facchini et al. con ¬Ã‚ rms the hyaluronan derivative scaffold Hyaff  ®11 as a suitable scaffold both for chondrocytes and mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of articular cartilage defects in their study. HYALOGRAFT from Italy is one of the European market leaders for ACT. It is a cartilage substitute made of autologous chondrocytes delivered on a biocompatible tridimentsional matrix, entirely composed of a derivative of hyaluronic acid (Marcacci et al., 2005). Fibrin plays a major role in general wound healing and specially during healing of osteochondral defects. Fibrin glue is currently used for the fixation of other chondrocyte scaffold constructs in defects. Some investigators used fibrin glues as a matrix, but owing to the exceedingly high concentrations and protein densities involved, the glue impeded rather than facilitated cell invasion and did not support a healing response (Stoop, 2008). Susante et al. found fibrin glue does not offer enough biomechanical support as a three-dimensional scaffold (van Susante et al., 1999). Another study found fibrin and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) hybrid scaffold promotes early chondrogenesis of articular chondrocytes in vitro. They used the natural polymer fibrin to immobilize cells and to provide homogenous cells distribution in PLGA scaffolds (Shaban et al., 2008). Sugar-based natural polymers such as chitosan, alginate and agarose can be formulated as hydrogels and in some cases sponges or pads. Although these materials are extensively used in in vitro research, their role in in vivo cartilage reconstruction is still limited (Stoop, 2008). Alginate possesses a number of suitable properties as a scaffold material for cartilage tissue engineering. The mobility of alginate allows the ability of cells to be distributed throughout the scaffold before the gelling phase. Its well-characterized mechanical properties are suitable for the transmission of mechanical stimuli to cells. Furthermore, it has been proved its ability to reestablish and maintain the differentiated state of chondrocytes during long-term culture (Heywood et al., 2004). Agarose is a clear, thermoreversible hydrogel which has been applied in numerous studies in cartilage tissue engineering. This hydrogel is supportive of the chondrocyte phenotype and allows for the synthesis of a fu nctional extracellular matrix. Agarose is neutrally charged, and forms solid gels at room temperature. The initial strength of the gel is dependent on the rate of gelling, which in turn is dependent on the ambient temperature. Gel strength is also strongly dependent on the concentration of the gel in solution. Basic science studies involving agarose gel formation have demonstrated that rapid cooling leads to a decreased, more homogeneous pore size. Increasing the gel concentration additionally decreases gel pore size and permeability. A number of studies have used agarose for the investigation of chondrocyte growth and response to mechanical stimuli (Ho MMY et al., 2003). 3.3.2 Synthetic materials Potential synthetic material scaffolds for the tissue engineering of bone or cartilage include: PL (Polylactic acid) PGLA (Polyglycolicacid and copolymers) CF-PU-PLLA (Carbonfibre-Polyurethane-Poly(L-lactide)-Graft) CF-Polyester (Polyester-Carbonfibre) PU (Polyurethane) PLLA (Capralactone (Poly-L-Lactide/epsilon-Caprolactone) PLLA-PPD (Poly- L-Lactic Acid and Poly- p-Dioxanol) PVA-H (Polyvinylalcohol-Hydrogel) ß-TCP (Tricalcium phosphate) CDHA (Calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite) (Haasper et al., 2008) The major advantages of the synthetic polymers are their design flexibility and avoid of disease transmission. Synthetic polymers can be easily processed into highly porous 3-dimensional scaffolds, fibres, sheets, blocks or microspheres. However, there are also disadvantages of some synthetic polymers, such as the potential increase in local pH resulting from acidic degradation products, excessive inflammatory responses and poor clearance and chronic inflammation associated with high molecular weight polymer (Stoop, 2008). Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic acid) (PLA), and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) have been investigated for use as cartilage tissue engineering scaffolds (Cima et al., 1991; Vacanti et al., 1991). Both, in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated these scaffold maintained the chondrocyte phenotype and the production of cartilage-speci ¬Ã‚ c extracellular matrix (ECM) (Barnewitz et al., 2006; Kaps et al., 2006). In addition, PLGA is used as a scaffold material for matrix-based autologous chondrocyte transplantation clinically for more than 3 years (Ossendorf et al., 2007). 3.4 Biomedical stimulation Growth factors are proved to be able to promote the formation of new cartilage tissue in both explants and engineered constructs (Darling and Athanasiou, 2005). Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) can dramatically increase biosynthesis level of choncroctyes, especially in the presence of mechanical stimulation (Bonassar et al. 2001; Jin et al. 2003). Transforming growth factor-ÃŽ ²1 (TGF-ÃŽ ²1) increases biosynthesis in engineered constructs and also stimulates the cellular proliferation (Blunk et al. 2002; van der Kraan et al. 1992). Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) stimulates cell proliferation (Adolphe et al. 1984) and biosynthesis (Fujimoto et al. 1999) in chondrocytes which were cultured under a variety of conditions. 3.5 Mechanical stimulation ACI is considered a proper way for the repair of cartilage defect. However, one of the obstacles to the use of autologous chondrocytes is the limited in vitro proliferation rate of these cells. A lot of stimulations have been found to be effective in stimulating cell proliferation and ECM synthesis, including mechanical, electrical, ultrasound (Parvizi et al., 1999; Noriega et al., 2007) and even laser (Torricelli et al., 2001) stimulation. Mechanical forces due to body movement are experienced by articular cartilage every day. These forces include direct compression, tensile and shear forces, or the generation of hydrostatic pressure and electric gradients. Some level of these forces is beneficial to chondrocytes. (Schulz and Bader, 2007; Shieh and Athanasiou, 2007) There are many studies which have described the design of bioreactor systems, which can apply shear forces, perfusion, tension, hydrostatic pressure, static compression, dynamic compression on cartilage explants, monolayer cultured cells or tissue engineered constructs. (Schulz and Bader, 2007) Previous work on these bioreactor systems has demonstrated that chondrocytes are highly mechanosensitive. A summary of the key studies is provided in Table 3.1. Static compression leads to decreased levels of sulfate and proline incorporation (Sah et al., 1989; Ragan et al., 1999). Type II collagen and aggrecan gene expression increase transiently, but decrease when exposed to longer durations of static compression (Ragan et al., 1999). In contrast, dynamic compression of cartilage explants stimulates sulfate and proline incorporation, while chondrocytes em bedded in hydrogels produce more matrix and form robust constructs when cyclically compressed. (Lee and Bader, 1997; Mauck et al., 2000) Table 3.1. Influence of the different models of mechanical stimulation on the biochemical response of articular chondrocytes. References Type of m

Critical Analysis of Theme for English B Essay -- American Literature

When I first read Langston Hughes' poem "Theme for English B", I did not particularly like it. But after reading it a second time and discussing it in class, I came to appreciate the poem on several levels. The way Hughes describes the setting of Harlem/New York is brief, but evocative. He also gives us insight into the thoughts and emotions of the main character, the young "colored" student, and ends the piece with several thought provoking passages. In the first stanza we find the student, who is also the narrator, having gotten his homework assignment to write a paper, is returning home to Harlem. The school he attends is "on the hill" (line 9), and apparently is in a "better" part of town, so he has to travel through the various areas of the city. The streets he crosses are named, and then he gets "to the Y" (line 13). The usual meaning of a "Y" is a point in a road that splits in two directions. In this case, though, it refers to the YMCA, where the student lives. I think the author is aware of this double meaning, because in the next line he clarifies the term by...

Buffalo Springfield :: folk-rock country-rock

Aside from the Byrds, the only other band that had a tremendous influence on folk-rock and country-rock in the sixties was Buffalo Springfield. They were noted as a key impact upon the counter-culture of the sixties, and their music is symbolic of the turbulence and controversy that surfaced during harsh times of war. The group’s formation was coincidental and legendary. Stephen Stills and Richie Furay were driving on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles in early April 1966, when by chance they pulled up behind a tattered black Pontiac hearse bearing Canada license plates. The car held Neil Young, a Canadian Stills had crossed paths with earlier, and Bruce Palmer, a bass player. The two were on search of their musical dreams when they fused with Stills and Furay, and began to work for status as a rock and roll band. Buffalo Springfield was soon signed with Atco Records, and began producing their self-titled debut album. This record contained the famous song, â€Å"For What It’s Worth,† which transcended pop charts to become an anthem for an entire generation. Their second album, Buffalo Springfield Again, achieved great acclaim for the powerful songs from Stills, Young, and Furay.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though Buffalo Springfield was established as the best folk-rock band in the sixties, the band was not intact for long. Even with the success that followed their popular albums, problems arose within the members of the group. Particularly, Stills and Young had stubborn, conflicting personalities. This lead to several rearrangements among members of the band. Young would often leave the group for long periods of time, while Palmer fought deportation.

Bilbo :: essays research papers

Magic in the Making The main character of the book is Mr. Bilbo Baggins. He is the hobbit who led the dwarves to the Lonely Mountain to reclaim their treasure from the dragon named Smaug. Bilbo is middle aged and resides in a clean, warm burrow dug into the side of a hill. In the beginning of the story Bilbo is a very weak character. He is easily frightened, and very shy. One of his strengths though, is that he is of the mythical race called hobbits. Hobbits are known for their skills in thievery and spying. There are several main characteristics of hobbits that separate them from normal humans. One, hobbits are very small. They only grow to reach the height of about three feet if they are lucky. Secondly, they have large feet that are covered at the tops by thick hair. This hair is used to keep the hobbit’s feet warm because they do not wear boots. Another characteristic of hobbits is that they normally don’t wish for any excitement or adventure. They thrive on repetition and dull activities such as gardening. Hobbits also love to eat. Bilbo’s favorite foods are: cake, bacon, sausage, eggs, wine, bread and any other fattening things that can be thought of. Some other important characters are as follows: Gandalf, he is the wizard that accompanies Bilbo and the dwarves on their quest; Thorin Oakenshield is son of the king of the dwarves who were driven from the Lonely Mountain. Smaug is the dragon of the Lonely Mountain who hoards the treasure he stole. Gollum is a slimy creature that was born a Hobbit but had the ring too long; this is the character that Bilbo steals the ring from. Bard is the archer that kills Smaug. Bilbo is the main character of the story and also the narrator. The main conflict of the story line is Bilbo versus himself. Bilbo has to overcome his fears of dragons and other creatures in order to carry out his part of the mission. Another conflict is the whole party vs. Smaug. The party of dwarves along with Bilbo and Gandalf, have to be able to destroy the dragon in order to claim their so deserved treasure. Bilbo completes this task by finding the dragon’s weak spot and relaying the location to an archer in Lake Town. Both of these conflicts are won by the end of the story.

Race-Based Jury Nullification Essay

Internet research clearly showed a long history for jury nullification in the US. An explanation of jury nullification, and in particular race based jury nullification, is that it is a method whereby juries nullify unfair laws by declaring guilty defendants not guilty. Race based nullification is where a jury acquits and individual based on their race. This is commonly found in homogenous juries where there is little jury diversity. Past cases such as runaway slave laws and current cases such as police shootings show that race-based nullification is still an issue in modern courtrooms. The conclusion being that jury nullification is an important power necessary for the checks and balances of the judicial system Jury nullification is a right enjoyed, but not understood, by all jurors in the US. This right gives jurors the ability to interpret laws for themselves and return not-guilty verdicts for guilty defendants allowing them to nullify laws. (Emal, 1995) The most common admonishment by judges is that jurors must decide the case based on facts, and that they are not in fact interpreting the fairness of laws. The fear is that if jurors knew or understood this power, it could undermine the authority of the US judicial system. Allowing juries to interpret laws is in fact a right given as a foil against a too powerful central government. Historically there is a tremendous precedent for jury nullification much of it involving race. In the North pre-civil war era juries commonly refused to convict runaway slaves because they felt that the law was unfair. This was an example of jury nullification, where the jury was aware that the defendant was guilty, but refused to return a guilty verdict, in effect nullifying the law. (Emal, 1995) More recently in the 1930’s many courts refused conviction for minor alcohol infractions because they felt the law was unfair. Another example of this trend were the civil rights trials of white supremacists in the south in the 50’s and 60’s; in these cases all white juries would refuse to convict white defendants of the murder of black  people or civil rights workers. (Emal, 1995) These cases clearly show that there have been many examples of jury nullification in the past in our country. Since a return of a not guilty verdict allows the jury to effectively end prosecution with no appeal allowed by the state it means that juries actually have final say about when and if a law is utilized. This allows juries the power to actually use their conscience when voting to convict or release a defendant. One possible outcome of jury nullification is the possibility of a major increase in hung juries. Race has figured in many instances of jury nullification so there is a clear precedent for race based jury nullification. (Emal, 1995) Recently all white juries have refused to convict white police officers in wrongful shooting trials where the victim was black. Also black juries have refused to convict clearly guilty defendants of crimes on the grounds that there are too many black people in prison already. (Butler, 1995) Another possible reason for jury nullification is to punish prosecutors and police for tactics, which the jurors find unpalatable. Many people recently felt that the O.J. Simpson trial was race based jury nullification; similarly the Rodney King trial would be an example. In both of these cases many people felt that the individual was guilty but that they were released because of their race. Some states have proposed that juries should have racial quotas in order to avoid possible race based nullification. In this system jurors who should be excused could be kept even if they were unsatisfactory if they fit some particular racial need. These attempts to eliminate jury nullification point to the seriousness with which this power is viewed. Some black lawmakers have said that since a jury is representative of a community then jurors should have the right to decide which people they will allow to live among them. (Butler, 1995) This basically means that jurors exercise their power based on conscience and not based on the facts of the case. This means that black juries would acquit non-violent black defendants even in cases where they were clearly guilty to nullify the effects of a predominantly white judicial system. The belief here is that the laws are  inherently unfair because they were created by and for white people. (Butler, 1995) Clearly there is a place for jury nullification in the US. There has been a long history of unfair laws and practices in the country and allowing the jury the power to overturn or nullify them is a good way to keep the government in check. (Jones, 2004) The real question is more about race-based nullification. Should race be a factor when juries consider nullification as an option? The answer to this is complicated if a jury really feels that a defendant was targeted unfairly based on race shouldn’t they have some power to affect the trial. (Butler, 1995) Also without a complete revamping of the legal system (scary thought) how would one go about fixing the problem? Can nullification be eliminated with our current system? The idea is to really re-examine the selection process. With nullification as a real possibility then prosecutors can act to eliminate it by paying more attention to homogeneity during the selection process. Any prosecutor who allows a homogenous jury runs a real risk of losing the case based on nullification. Also race based jury nullification has been a useful tool in the past. (Jones, 2004) If not for northern juries how many runaway slaves would have been returned to torture and beatings in the south. In this case we had a manifestly unfair law which juries exercised a legitimate nullification against. Overall race based jury nullification is a scary prospect when taken to the extreme but it is a prospect that bears some consideration. Since it has been used righteously in the past it is a hard decision to contemplate getting rid of it. If there was no jury nullification of any kind then the country would have missed out on juries taking a stand against poorly thought out laws. The answer is that jury nullification has played a dual roll in our history. At times it is a useful tool as in the cases involving slavery or differential prosecution, at times allowing racists to go free. So having weighed the merits of the situation it is best left as is currently. There is a real risk for overuse if everyone were aware of the  power but in its absence the government would exercise too much power unbalanced by the power of the people. The conclusion would have to be that there is too much risk in eliminating jury nullification as a whole. Race based nullification is probably not necessary and would be nice to eliminate but there is no effective way to combat this. One possibility mentioned earlier is for prosecutors to consider nullification during the selection process to help combat this problem. References Butler, Paul. (1998). Racially Based Jury Nullification: Black Power in the Criminal Justice System. Yale Law Review, 105, 677-725. Emal, Russ. (1995). Jury Nullification: Why You Should Know What It Is. Retrieved on 11/21/04 from http://www.greenmac.com/eagle/ISSUES/ISSUE23- /07JuryNullification.html Jones Iloilo Marguerità ©. (2004). American Juror. Retrieved on 11/21/04 from http://www.fffija.org

U.S Economy Cause and Effect

Essay #2 cause and effect essay. (1084) Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Â   Ben Soloviev As America is going through economical disfunction's, Â  it is apparent that many people fear for losing their job because in such a depression it would make it impossible to be well off comfortably due to the demand of money needed for all the basic essentials especially in Orange County. Orange County happens the be one of the more expensive areas in the state and it is crucial to always have a steady income as life here is not cheap but well worth it.Many Americans are in search for work and are struggling to make a living. As the job hunting goes on, many job opportunities are overseen to due to programs such unemployment. The percentage of unemployment has sky rocketed over the past few years leaving it up to us, tax payers with job to pay for such needs. Unemployment is not fair for all, most people would say. There are a percentage of people who trul y have no other choice of surviving unless they depend on this crucial unemployment program.Although unemployment is crucial for some, it is not necessary for a portion of the people due to the simple fact that they are not trying hard enough to seek new job opportunities. Instead they a letting opportunities slide right past them every single day they are not looking for work. Many people depend on unemployment alone, because most people would prefer to get paid for doing nothing while they have the chance too. Many people take advantage of this privilege and only it do they follow.A huge downfall due to unemployment for us people with a steady income and a consistent employment is the fact that we have to pay for the unemployed. Hardworking people work to support themselves also end up paying taxes which a percentage of that goes to the unemployed. By increasing our taxes the government collects money all around. This dramatically decreases the standard of living for us citizens. Although unemployment has it's pros and is a huge opportunity for people in struggles or going through loss of unemployment.It also puts a major dependability on hard working citizens who are forced to pay high taxes which a certain percentage are collected to pay for the unemployed. Many people abuse unemployment for as long as they can and only pretend to seek work but instead just prefer to do nothing but make something which not only is unfair but also not right. Unemployment not only affects certain individuals but it also puts a decrease on the standard of living here in the United states which affects everybody around us.

Doel

Background With the promise of making this country into â€Å"Digital Bangladesh† the government of Bangladesh introduced its first notebook to target the segment of the people of Bangladesh who can`t afford to buy a costly big name laptop. Doel is the first Netbook made in Bangladesh by Telephone Shilpa-Songstha Limited, which is situated in Tongi, Gazipur. Named after the national bird, Doel is the first ever laptop brand to be assembled in Bangladesh, which is believed to revolutionise the high tech industry of the country.With the aim to bridge the communication gap between our people and ICT, by providing laptops at an affordable rate, this initiative provides scopes to build capacity, train local manpower and strengthen the country’s ICT expertise. At present, Shilpa Songsthe Limited has manufactured four different classes of Netbooks: The Basic DOEL Netbook, DOEL Primary Netbook, DOEL Standard Netbook and DOEL Advanced Netbook Need for Research: To know and under stand our county as potential market for laptop computers I need to know what customer and potential customers’ perception towards a Bangladesh made laptop.Would it be lucrative industries for laptop manufacturing will depend on how accept Doel as a Bangladeshi laptop brand. Should other home grown brands come up with line of laptops for general people. Problem Definition: Prospect of Doel the first notebook made in Bangladesh Objectives * Know Perception towards Bangladeshi laptop brand Doel among laptop users * Assess Prospect of rising industry surrounding laptop/notebook computers in Bangladesh * Find out the Factors that Influence people to buy notebook /laptops Research Design The research will be done by conducting survey on users and potential laptop users in Bangladesh.The survey will also cover the segment of people who cannot afford laptops but might be benefitted by it. That means rural businessman, students, SME owners etc. Data Collection To conduct the research we need data and statistics of various kinds. Data will be collected from both primary and secondary sources Primary source: sample survey on users and potential laptop users of Bangladesh Interview Secondary sources: News articles Publications on ICT industry in Bangladesh Websites Blogs Data Analysis Data analysis will be done using statistical software spss.

Eq Is Better Than Iq

EQ IS BETTER THAN IQ! Government points| Opposition’s rebuttals| Necessary social skills that a student needs are associated with high levels of EQ or emotional intelligence. If a student does not develop the EQ skills needed to successfully transverse the maturation process he or she will be left in a situation of having the intelligence to functionally work or play but not have the emotional skills to successfully work or play, thus limiting their potential future.They may have received good grades on tests in school classes but without a working high level of EQ they are unable to function as adult people in an adult world| A person's IQ, on the other hand, measures concepts like logical reasoning, word comprehension, and math skills rather than creative potential or emotional abilities. People with a  high IQ  may be able to learn certain subjects very quickly and make connections between ideas that others miss. It's correlation coefficient is . so in most cases the hi gher IQ someone has, or the higher their potential to learn is, the higher their emotional intelligence is. | IQ tests are used as an indicator of logical reasoning ability and technical intelligence. A high IQ is often a prerequisite for rising to the top ranks of business today. It is necessary, but it is not adequate to predict executive competence and corporate success. By itself, a high IQ does not guarantee that you will stand out and rise above everyone else.Research carried out by the Carnegie Institute of Technology shows that 85 percent of your financial success is due to skills in â€Å"human engineering,† your personality and ability to communicate, negotiate, and lead. Shockingly, only 15 percent is due to technical knowledge. Additionally, Nobel Prize winning Israeli-American psychologist, Daniel Kahneman, found that people would rather do business with a person they like and trust rather than someone they don’t, even if the likeable person is offering a lower quality product or service at a higher price. What good does a  high IQ  do for you? The conclusion is: quite a lot. In our society intelligence is highly appreciated. If you have a high IQ, you have a better chance of being successful at school and professionally. | In 1995, psychologist Daniel Goleman released a book called â€Å"Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ. † Goleman tried to unravel how someone who graduates at the top of the class can spend years hoping for a promotion, whereas someone who barely cracked a book might be that class's top earner.He hypothesized that when it came to predicting success, standard intelligence mattered less than emotional intelligence. It's not what you know, but who you know — and how well you get along with them, to borrow an old adage. According to Goleman's research, a high IQ didn't help when it came to networking or collaborating, while those who could understand and regulate emotion could sail straight to the top of the corporate ladder. | | | | | | | | | |

Comparing and contrasting marketing activity Essay

Comparing and contrasting marketing activity - Essay Example ortant observation that the experts make is that the reach of the end customers of today has increased by huge extent, thanks to the factors like globalisation and liberalisation. The international geographical border are almost non – existent in terms of trade and finance and the revolution brought in by inter – net has enable citizens to purchase goods or services within a few clicks of the computer mouse from any part of the world. The other important thing has been the information flow. The end consumers are informed like never before and it is this factor that distinguishes between the identical products and services. There is little doubt that marketing is the life blood of business. However good the product or service might be, if it cannot be sold in the market and revenue earned; every effort falls flat. The process of marketing is truly a dynamic one and depends largely on each and every minute changes in the buying behaviour or the related environment of the target group of customers. Today, with the boom in the service sector, the impact of marketing activities are more felt. The report analyses various activities of a marketing process namely product mix, positioning, price mix, communications and distribution of two segments i.e. high - street fashion and convenience foods. In other words, the report focuses upon the marketing mix of the two segments that operate in the similar market. The report basically deals with the market of the United Kingdom i.e. the economies of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. The economy of United Kingdom is one of the most affluent among the world economies, being the sixth largest economy in the world and the third largest in the whole of Europe. The chosen companies for the report in this market segment are the famous fashion brand ‘Paul Smith’ and the leading convenient food store ‘Spar’. Both the companies are catering to the markets of the United Kingdom for quite a long time now and have

The Knot in Susan Glaspell's Trifles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Knot in Susan Glaspell's Trifles - Essay Example Wright for not keeping her house in order, Mrs. Hale defends her through reminding the men of their multiple burdens as women: â€Å"There’s a great deal of work to be done on a farm† (Glaspell, 1916). For her, men fail to appreciate the work they do to support their families. Mrs. Hale expresses the poor attention given to women’s contribution in society: â€Å"Men’s hands aren’t always as clean as they might be† (Glaspell, 1916). This statement has double meaning because it indicates that men should not charge women as irresponsible, when they make their lives so physically and emotionally taxing. Contradictory to the opinionated Mrs. Hale, Mrs. Peters serves as her foil; she represents the traditional submissive woman. At first, Mrs. Peters defends her husband and the men doing the investigation. For her, they are only doing their â€Å"duty† (Glaspell, 1916). She also resists talking about the culpability of Mrs. Wright. She is ada mant that â€Å"the law is the law† (Glaspell, 1916). When Mrs. Peters realizes, however, that Mrs. Wright lost her identity during their marriage, she remembers that she knows â€Å"what stillness is† (Glaspell, 1916). She understands that it is not right for any woman to stay still for a man all her life. Thus, in the end, Mrs. Peters asserts that she does not see herself as being married to the law, just because she is the sheriff’s wife. ... PART 2 A psychoanalytic reading: The knot in Glaspell’s Trifles Several female writers such as Kate Chopin and Susan Glaspell contested the idea of a woman’s place under her husband. They questioned gender norms and practices that served male interests, while eradicating the rights of women to speech and self-determination. In the short play Trifles, Glaspell (1916) used the setting of the kitchen to demonstrate the differences between women’s and men’s investigatory skills and processes. Her female and male characters, especially in how they speak with their fellow gender and the opposite sex, reveal the uneven gender relations of the early twentieth century. A psychoanalytic reading that focuses on Mrs. Wright helps uncover her innermost emotions as a woman. The symbolism of the knot and the gender conflict in the play revealed that Mrs. Wright killed her husband because of her repressed feelings of anxiety against her domineering husband and the patriar chal culture of her times. The knot stands for how marriage knots or ties women to their husbands. Marriage is represented as a knot around women’s necks because they are imprisoned in the confines of their homes. Trifles describes the burdens of domestic drudgery, and yet society does not appreciate women’s contributions to it. The County Attorney judges Mrs. Wright’s character as an unfit homemaker, for instance, because her towels are â€Å"dirty† (Glaspell, 1916). His attitude signifies his belief that the only right place for women is in the house, and that the house is their only source of identity. Furthermore, the knot represents the idea that men can tighten it around women as they please. The men criticize Mrs. Wright for not keeping the kitchen immaculately clean. For these men,

Property Asset Management ( A professional Report) Essay

Property Asset Management ( A professional Report) - Essay Example The team has to have at least three (3) more members who suitably qualified and experienced aside from the Property Assessment Manager to enable the smooth and professional execution of the project's principal task of finding a viable headquarters for the firm. One is the Senior Property Appraiser who will be tasked to perform difficult technical valuation work in the classification and appraisal of real property for value assessment purposes and to assist in the training of subordinate appraisers in the theory and techniques of real property appraisals. The SPA's duties may include but are not limited to: leads assessment projects, including assisting with planning and coordination of projects; annually performs preliminary and final review on a large volume of complex valuation changes such as farm and forest property segregations and mergers; This person must have a working knowledge of -- Property tax system and adjustments necessary to compute assessed values resulting from corrections or adjustments to real market value; principles, practices and methods of real property appraisal; technical appraisal practices and procedures used in residential, commercial, farm, forest, manufactured housing and land appraisal, pertinent structural, economic, and environmental factors affecting property value; special assessment programs including farm, forest, wildlife habitat, historical, commercial facilities under construction, riparian and open space; construction techniques, blueprints, maps, property descriptions, quality of building materials, equipment, workmanship, and general construction quality and quantity as applied to

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade - Research Paper Example The trans-Atlantic slave trade has normally been considered only regarding the adults. However, now children’s experiences are also being counted. According to an estimate, children made up one-quarter of the African slaves made to migrate to America. In spite of this big number there is indeed a lack of sources and apparently, no importance is given to what the children experienced, leaving their voices unheard. Enslavement Children were very unwilling to participate in the slave trade and in spite of their age they saw themselves captured and in imprisonment after the war. The women, children and the older people became particularly vulnerable after their men were killed during the war; the ones who were spared death were then ransomed or even sold as slaves. After military expeditions, there were commercial caravans that actually brought textiles and imported goods and traded the slaves with those. Another way of acquiring slaves, particularly children, was through kidnappi ng and this method was more common in certain regions in West Africa. The kidnapping was done when the kids were away from their parents or guardians, maybe simply playing outside, working in fields or taking a calm walk. This was not the only way, however, and the traders even bought children from their families who were more than willing to â€Å"sell† them for money since they were desperate for money and food. Still, others were pawned or bargained for by their parents or used to repay debts or given to be acquitted of any crime they or their family members might have committed. Weak children were also sometimes sold and so were the ones whom their parents thought brought them ill luck. The upcoming events after the capture were a nightmare for the slaves. The traders sold off some children to be sent for the coast while others were sold many times. Several of these kids remained within Africa only and became slaves to whoever bought them. Many others could not survive th e sea route. The ones who were able to reach the coast alive were taken to a factory or post where merchants bought them and kept them inside prisons with the other slaves. These children were then completely stripped and their bodies were rubbed with palm oil. Many times their heads were also shaven. After the merchants had bought their slaves they â€Å"branded† them in order to make sure that their â€Å"property† does not get mixed up with someone else’s and they are able to distinctly make out which their cargo is. The brand was normally a symbol on their chest or back. The Middle Passage According to the slave traders the individuals less than 4’4’’ in height were considered to be children and these children were permitted to stay on the deck with the women. These deck people were, on rare occasions, given certain favors such as giving them old clothes, teaching them how to play certain games or even how to sail. Some children, however , did not play or eat while others preferred to stay with the women and cry all night. If a child was taller than the specified height he was automatically kept with the adults and there they were treated like an adult too. The conditions there were worse and there was no concept of hygiene. If they cried or did not eat or sleep they were punished harshly.